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The History and Necessity of Scientific Research and Engineering Ethics

 
Danny Li, 2013-3-14

The engineering ethics is the moral result of engineering research. Essentially ethics and moral are the cyclic definition. they are used to define one with another. The idea is sample but  they are strong and powerful ideological weapons.

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that involves systematizing, defending, and recommending  philosophic concepts of right conduct and misconduct. The term is from a Greek word, ethos that means "character". In philosophy, ethics studies the moral behavior in human society, and how an individual should act. Engineering ethics is the field of applied ethics and moral principles to the practice of engineering including the scientific activities. "How should we deal with this situation?" , "In what moral principles should we do when we meet this situation?" It was a critical-thinking. The engineering only centers on the technique issues rather than the ultimate purpose of engineering practice and the moral characters.

The engineer recognizes that the greatest merit is the work, so exercise their profession committed to serving society, attending to the welfare and progress of the majority. By transforming nature for the benefit of mankind, the engineer must increase their awareness of the world is the abode of man and his interest in the universe is a guarantee of overcoming their spirit and knowledge of reality to make it fairer and happier. The engineer should reject papers that are intended to harm the general interest, in this way avoid situations involving hazards or constitute a threat to the environment, life, health and other rights of human beings. It is an inescapable duty of the engineer to hold the prestige of the profession and ensure its proper discharge; also maintain a professional demeanor rooted in the ability, honesty, fortitude, temperance, magnanimity, modesty, honesty and justice, with the consciousness of individual well-being subordinate to the good social. The engineer must ensure the continuous improvement of their knowledge, particularly of their profession, disseminate their knowledge, share experience, provide opportunities for education and training of workers, provide recognition, moral and material support to the school where he studied, in this way revert to the opportunities the company has received. It is the responsibility of the engineer who carried out their work efficiently and supports the laws. In particular, ensure compliance with the standards of worker protection provided by the law As professionals, engineers are expected to commit themselves to high standards of conduct (NSPE) [1]

The engineering ethics is closely linked with human civilization. The ancient Egyptian obtained some technique engineering by building the pyramids. They created the technique to build the  pyramids that could stand up against the natural disasters such as earthquake in the windy and dusty desert environment,and it brought about the human concerns to the slave workers. The pyramids were made of thousands of granite blocks weighing up to 80 tons, which were made in the mountains 1,000 kilometers away, the ancient Egyptian transported the granites over by boats along the Nile river.

The ancient Greek philosopher, Socrates was sentenced to death, his students dug the underground tunnel directly to his bed in the prison, and bribed the jailors in order to save the great philosopher. Aristotle first mentioned the concept of "engineering ethics" in his books of "natural philosophy", "physics" at the Academy and the Lyceum, which was the earliest class lessons of "engineering ethics".

In ancient China, there were a large amount of ethical educations in a hundred schools in pre-Qin times, such as golden mean of the path, the relationship of rulers and ministers, Confucian Doctrine of filial piety and fraternal duty, as a principle of family ethics, is the traditional  expression of Confucian humanity philosophy in ancient China, the Equality of Things by Zhuangzi. Chinese morale values includes the ancients' unpretending desires for pursuing happy life, harmonious family and peaceful community, and crying up value orientation of harmonious society. The education of engineering ethics of ancient China mainly centered on good timing, geographical convenience and good human relations. There were much more probabilities of car crush at T-junctions, the house insurance should be more expensive,  the ancestral graves and living quarters should not be built in the low - lying land, since it collects water. The doors and windows should face the south in order to light and keep warm.

Confucian said "To do a good job, one must first sharpen one's tools". The engineers should prepare the tools  with proficiency so that they can get twice the result with the half effort. There are many elements in the engineering practice, engineers are the first elements, the nature of engineering elements is not the ethics, but every engineering practice implies rich morale issues and ethical problems.

In ancient China, Bin Li in Qin dynasties planned and designed on the Dujiang Weir Project, the PRINCIPLES OF SYSTEM SCIENCE IN THE DUGIANG WEIR PROJECT includes the elite of Chinese ancient engineering ethics that allow the project to work well for 2,000 years.

The tool materials are often considered as the important means to study human history. The Bronze ware is the symbol to differentiate primitive communism and slavery,  the iron ware is the watershed between slavery and feudalism. The Han dynasties iron sword is a kind of man made smelted iron, but not natural meteoric iron. The manufacturing technology of the sword was forging from wrought iron regarding to the condition of the unearthed sword by the use of organic silica for conservation. The engineer supervised the forging and smelting of iron ware, the manufacturing procedures are slightly similar to the modern quality control and quality insurance. The engineers had to put the government and public's interest in front of their own, which was the sprout of altruism of engineering ethics.

Dong Zhongshu thought that the social hierarchy was the fundamental law of the universe, the Wuchang Dao was the only element to keep a cordial and harmonious society, which the pyramid management mode of ancient China. His non-religious Feature of Heaven Human Ideology was the basic principles of ancient China. The sui yang emperor ' s opening the canal was overambitious and unrealistic so that his greedy construction plan only focused on the progress of engineering ignoring the human ethics.

John Augustine mentioned his Metaphysical Dimension of  Free Will, that God is a omnipresent engineer. . John Calvin in Renaissance created the management mode of Church, which leads also to the modern engineering ethics field.

The military engineers were the earliest technicians in the ancient Rome who were marching with the legions, designed the siege engines, built the fortifications and logistics roads. The great Colosseum was built by the ancient Rome civil engineer. The “Greek fire" was one of the most powerful secret weapons designed by the Rome marine engineers, which guaranteed the Rome to hold the command of sea, and keep the empire of byzantine last over 1,000 years.

French built the Pont du Gard, aqueduct, 275 meters long, 48.8 meters high, by which they created the first engineering responsibility and contract. The aqueduct was owned by the city government that hired the engineers and workers.

Da Vinci was an archetypal Renaissance figure, a mechanical engineer, a civil engineer and a military engineer. "His genius, perhaps more than that of any other figure, epitomized the Renaissance humanist ideal. Leonardo has often been described as the archetype of the Renaissance Man, a man of "unquenchable curiosity" and "feverishly inventive imagination" [2]

In 20th century, the US engineering society reinforced the engineering ethics code, slightly similar to the ancient Rome associations, such as how to avoid the interest conflicts, how to avoid the rat-race competition, how to protect the intelligence properties, which made the engineering ethics a subject of philosophy, law, science, engineering and management.

reference

[1]  Layton (1986). pp. 6-9

[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci

科学研究与工程伦理的历史和必要性
李革胜 (11-01-2012)

伦理(ethics)与道德(moral)是一个循环定义,伦理学家常用其中的一个来定义另外一个。所谓伦理,就是人与人相处的各种道德规则、行为准则。而伦理学就是关于道德起源、发展、人的行为准则和人与人之间义务的学说。它在现代社会的工程建设中的重要性已日益地凸显出来。从本质看, 伦理的是人类思想行为的自我约束, 从哲学看,伦理和道德的范畴是一样的。


伦理学是哲学的一个分支,是关于道德的科学。它对人类道德生活进行系统思考和研究, 并试图从理论层面建构一种指导行为的法则体系。即“我们应该如何处理这种处境”,“我们为什么这样处理?我们依据什么这样处理?”,并且对其进行严格的评 判。而工程学只关心最基本的逻辑和技术问题,而不关心人的最终目的是什么,以及怎样培养道德品质,这些技术怎样使用才能对人类有益。一句话, 工程伦理是在工程中获得辩护的道德价值。

工 程伦理学以工程及科研活动中的伦理现象为研究对象,包括技术使用过程中道德意识现象(如科研活动中个人的道德情感和选择等),工程技术中的道德活动现象 (如科研伦理行为等)以及工程科技活动道德规范现象等。工程伦理学将技术和伦理现象从人类的生产实践活动中抽分开来,探讨工程伦理的本质、起源和发展、工 程伦理学同物质生活水平之间的关系、工程伦理的最高原则和评价标准、技术伦理规范体系、工程师的素质教育和修养、工程师人生的意义、工程师的价值、科研生 活态度等问题。工程伦理与经济利益、物质生活的关系、工程师个体利益与社会整体利益的关系问题等是工程伦理学的研究范畴。

在中国的工程学术界,目前工程伦理学问题还很少被认真关注。1999 年1月4日,重庆綦江县虹桥整体垮塌,造成40人死亡。江西九江大桥因盗窃行为发生脆性断裂,造成巨大经济损失, 这都是典型的“豆腐渣工程”。拖欠农民工工资、工程技术人员素质低, 事故频发等问题,这些问题往往被归为经济问 题、技术问题或管理问题。本质上,这些问题都是工程伦理问题。

科学研究与工程伦理的历史

工程伦理和人类文明息息相关。 古埃及人通过修金字塔, 获得一些技术伦理, 就是通过对技术行为进行伦理导向, 有效抵挡风沙, 地震等自然灾害, 使技术主体 如奴隶在修金字塔的过程中得到人伦关怀。考虑到技术的可能性,因为金字塔是用成百上千块像是用机器精确切割出来的花岗岩石块,其中最大的重达80吨, 距离人迹罕至的金字塔最近的花岗岩产地, 是约1000公里以外的阿斯旺, 因为超过25吨重的货物属于重件运输的范围, 用船顺着尼罗河将这些石块运到下游。考虑其工程活动的目的,得到良好的气流, 空调与采光, 及工程技术手段以及后果的正当性, 角锥体建筑达到重要的纪念目的。 通过对技术行为的伦理调节, 用石块堆积而成,重心接近基座,层级越高使用石材越少,节约劳动力, 协调技术发展与人以及社会之间的紧张的伦理关系,如尽量使用牲口, 给奴隶假期, 医疗保障, 营养食品等。

伦理学这一概念源出希腊文ετησs,意为品德、风俗 、习惯 、性格等。古希腊哲学家苏格拉底的学生用坑道技术把地道挖到监狱床底,并贿赂狱卒, 以便拯救一个伟大的伦理学家。亚里士多德在《尼各马可伦理学》《物理学》等书中最先提到”工程伦理学” 或”技术伦理学”的概念。他从道德的角度认为, 他认为”要使一个物体运动不已,需要有一个不断起作用的原因”,提出了物质与形式,运动,时间和空间等方面的问题, 给牛顿物理学提供了一个巨人肩膀。亚里士多德最先在吕克昂学园提供科学技术加伦理哲学的案例教学,即最早的工程伦理教育。

中国古代, 在先秦诸子百家的论著中,有大量关于人生道德、伦理的内容,特别是君臣之道、孝悌之道、中庸 之道等。 这是古代中国的伦理学教育。庄子的齐物概念也是万物一体的伦理思想。中国古代的工程伦理教育很多时候是风水教育,讲究天时, 地利, 人和。如丁字路口出车祸机率大,房屋保险应该高一些。在低洼地不要修住房祖坟, 容易积水。修建房屋最好窗户门朝南,以便采光, 保暖等。

孔子讲到” 公欲善其事, 必先利其器”,即工程师在做工程前准备好工具和人手,做起工程来就能得心应手,事半功倍。墨子是中国最早的工程伦理教育家, 破公输盘云梯, 实际上就是教育工程师们, “没有与伦理无关的工程”。工程活动是人类文明存在和发展的物质基础。它涉及人与自然,人与人、人与社会的关系,因此在工程活动本质上存在着许多深刻的伦 理问题。楚惠王忽视了工程的伦理维度,造成工程活动中的伦理缺位, 认为鲁班设计的云梯,比楼车还要高,是世界上最先进的攻城工具, 有了它, 就可以百战百胜, 攻打宋国了。楚惠王不懂得工程活动也需要伦理道德,用火箭就可以轻易烧掉云梯,用滚木擂石可以砸撞翻云梯。有人认为有了航母就可以和美国, 日本在海上叫板一样,任何一项不道德的工程总有其弊病和弱点。工程活动是许多要素的集成, 其中人是第一要素,非一两项新技术。虽然工程活动的第一本性不是伦理道德,任何工程活动中都必然蕴涵着伦理目标和伦理问题, 设计云梯的目的是为了战争, 而战争有正义和非正义的区别。世界上不可能存在与伦理无关的工程。国家必须深刻关注工程的伦理维度,战争的道德是非问题,如果丢失或轻视这个维度,就会出 现危害国家安全的不道德工程。

秦朝李冰设计规划的都江堰工程相当完善,符合中国工程伦理的精髓, 即中庸之道的原则:慎独自修,忠恕宽容,至诚尽性。该水利工程联合运用分水鱼嘴和宝瓶口,内外金刚堤、人字堤及其他附属建筑,能按照灌溉、防洪的需要,分 配洪、枯水流量。做到了在工程活动中不故意伤害,避免设计、规划和修建过程中的疏忽,争取最大利益,两千年多来一直在发挥巨大的作用。这是朴素工程伦理思 想的体现。

工具材料是研究人类历史的重要手段, 青铜器是区别原始社会和奴隶社会的标志。铁器是奴隶社会和封建社会的分水岭。中国汉代铁剑冶炼技术世界一流,汉武帝时期就掌握了用煤炭冶炼生铁, 熔炉, 鼓风机, 淬火等技术, 汉代球铁的发现曾经轰动一时。 当时在长安, 铁器冶炼由朝廷监督, 作为军事物品制作, 在冶炼工程实践中,尚方令(工程师)的一项重要的工作就是负责监督工匠,冶炼锻打铁器。工匠们必须遵守朝廷制定的标准操作程序和职业义务,类似现在的安全 技术操作规程,工序质量监督检查等。因为不可预料的质量问题随时都有可能会出现,这些操作和标准并不总能适应这些不可预料情况,但不管何种情况,当时的工 匠们都必须把公众,国家和朝庭的利益, 安全和福祉放在首位。也是利他的工程伦理思想萌芽。

董仲舒认为专制社会等级制度、政治秩序神圣化为宇宙的根本法。坚持五常之道,就能维持社会的稳定和人际和谐的关系。造成中国封建社会金字塔运行的管理格局。隋炀帝有恢宏的抱负,好大喜功, 戮力付诸。修建大运河,营造洛阳城,劳民伤财导致灭国。就是只重技术和工程进度,忽略人伦常理的结果。唐太宗虚心纳谏,厉行俭约,使百姓休养生息,各民族 融洽相处。工程建设不图虚荣, 重视农田水利,开辟的“丝绸之路”, 成为后来全盛时期的贞观之治。这是重视工程伦理的一个范例。

中世纪奥古斯丁认为上帝是一个“无 中生有”的工程师。上帝创世既不需要材料,也不需要工具,甚至连时间和空间也不存在,他仅凭语言就足以产生出整个世界。文艺复兴时期加尔文提出的长老制教 会管理模式对美国的政治产生深远的意义。管理科学也是工程伦理学的研究范畴。那时候,工程师在工程活动中,只要做到不故意伤害,避免设计、制造和销售技术 产品中的疏忽就可以了。

古 罗马最早的工程技术人员是军事工程师,或工程兵 (military engineer), 和罗马军队一起行动, 设计攻城器械, 修筑防御工事和后勤道路。古罗马土木工程师 (civil engineer)用砖窑烧出的砖能够造出三层混凝土的筒形拱斗兽场(Colosseum)等经典建筑。罗马帝国凭借其海军工程师设计的秘密武器, 一种可以在水上燃烧的液体, “希臘火” , 拥有制海权, 为其軍事胜利作出巨大的贡献,是拜占庭帝国能持续千年之久的重要原因, 从伦理上讲, “火攻”不是三国周喻,诸葛亮的发明创造。

一世纪, 法国人修高架式水道, 马水槽(Pont du Gard, aqueduct) 275 米长,48.8 米高, 引入了原始的工程决策和责任伦理问题,  马水槽是尼姆市政府财产, 它负责雇用承包商和技术工人进行修建, 测量员负责路线勘探和设计,水准器测量水平。这里的责任包括承包商事后责任和施工工人追究性责任,测量员事前责任和市政府决策责任。

欧洲文艺复兴时期最完美的代表列奥纳多· 达·芬奇是一位思想深邃,学识渊博、多才多艺的机械工程师,建筑工程师和军事工程师。他设计了潜水艇、直升机、水下呼吸装置、发条传动装置、风速计和陀螺 仪等机械装置, 让人对机械世界痴迷不已。他提出“理论脱离实践是最大的不幸”,“实践应以好的理论为基础”等科学研究伦理观点,为哥白尼、伽利略、开普勒、牛顿等人的研 究开辟了新的道路。

解析几何之父勒内· 笛卡儿是近代唯物论的开拓者。他创立了一种以数学为基础的演绎法:从直观公理出发,运用数学的逻辑演绎,推出结论。他用直观“模型”来说明物理现象。例如 用盛水的玻璃球来模拟并成功地解释了虹霓现象。运用假设和假说的方法,提出了“普遍怀疑”的主张。被誉为“近代伦理科学研究的始祖”。

艾萨克·牛顿是人类历史上最伟大、最有影响的科学家,他提出了万有引力,三大运动定律和光的微粒说, 与莱布尼茨发展了微积分学, 阐明了动量角动量守恒之原理。展示了天体的运动遵循的自然定律, 彻底推翻了太阳中心说,推动了科学革命。

十六世纪, 荷兰人最早认识到书面工程合同的重要性, 在低地修建海堤, 主要靠严格责任的方式雇佣工程人员,要求施工工程师还负有超出书面合同载明的、更进一步的主动责任,必须认真考虑地貌,土质可能的状况,甚至要考虑施工材 料被误用的情况。也就是说,要求工程师考虑到海堤最终使用情况,负有在工作中养成谨慎的义务和责任。要求工程师避免自私自利,畏惧,自欺欺人,自我中心的 倾向,勇敢的承担由自己的工程引起或者间接引起的责任。

英国进化论伦理学家托马斯·亨利·赫胥黎的“物竞天择,适者生存”的伦理观点号召人们“与天争胜”,是后来人们围湖 造田, 愚公移山等工程伦理基础。亚瑟·叔本华认为人类行为的动机是人类伦理的基础, 人生设计得象钟摆,在痛苦与倦怠之间徘徊。他因为受不了女裁缝的吵闹,特别设计了一种容易摔跤的楼梯并致其残疾。这是一个典型的伦理学家技术杀人例子。

十七世纪科学与数学的发展导致了十八世纪的工业革命。标准化, 大规模生产积累起来的财富鼓舞了工程研究呈几何积数增长。电气技术的使用,大众通讯工具的发明, 如电报,电话, 电视, 广播, 和传真和计算机技术的广泛使用,使人们开始思考如何建立调整工程与技术、工程与社会之间关系的道德规范,在工程领域必须遵守的伦理道德原则。对从事工程设 计、建设和管理工作的工程师责任、公平、安全、风险的道德要求。

美国实用主义伦理学家约翰·杜威提出, 连续性和实践中学习, 成功的教育是一直延续下去的,就是现在所讲的终身教育, 教育必须有”良好的教育目的”,所以一个成功的工程应该是建立在良好的动机, 切实可行的方案, 一个可延续下去的维护措施之上。

史蒂芬·威廉·霍金提出”基础科学研究应从科学考虑出发,并非由经济主导,但基础科学研究发展经常带来经济效益。如晶体管的研究本是纯粹物理学问题,而晶体管正是现代电子和电脑工业的基础”。霍尔效应原是基础物理学研究的附属品,但没有能制造高强度的磁性材料工艺, 霍尔效应的传感器并不实用。小电压输出的信号调节电路的发明, 使霍尔效应传感器可在零下40度到零上150度范围内工作,全部密封不受干扰污染,完全能够适应高温,寒冷, 振动的恶劣工作环境。这也是科学基金分配的伦理范畴。斯金纳的"无错误辨别"学习的实验研究在学生的行为塑造上是可借鉴的,对课堂教学也有指导意义。是属于教学活动伦理研究范畴。

从 19世纪中期开始,蒸汽机、汽车、机床、电器等产品的技术越来越复杂,普通用户越来越难以判断产品的性能和安全可靠性,社会开始认识到对有安全缺陷或危险 的技术和产品造成危害的责任问题,要求由制造者或发明者对产品使用造成的伤害负责, 而非销售商负责。要求工业机器的设计、制造不仅要考虑商业利益,还要考虑到操纵机器的工人的安全。各个工程行业协会开始要求生产厂家对自己生产的产品的质 量和安全负责,政府开始制订法律要求生产商达到产品质量和安全标准。美国工程师协会提出故意(intentionally),鲁莽 (recklessly),和疏忽 (negligently)导致的伤害本质上是一个责任问题,一个疏忽的工程师必须为自己的行为承担责任。

20世纪初,美国的各工程专业学会最早发布工程伦理准则。有些类似中世纪古罗马的行会规矩,侧重工程专业内部的 事务,如建筑工程师与地产商的关系、机械工程师与技术工人同事的关系, 科研工程师个人与科学研究和大学的关系。土木工程师在履行工程服务时应忠诚客户利益、工程师如何做到和解同行利益冲突、避免恶性竞争、保持技术知识竞争 力、促进本工程专业的声誉、避免伤害、注意安全等。20世纪70年代,美国工程师协会开始强调工程师对公众、 社会的责任, 使工程伦理学成为一门涉及哲学、法律、基础科学、应用科学、工程学、社会科学和管理科学的综合性学科。

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